LAB REPORT FOR NUMERICAL METHODS 3

Trapezoidal rule for given function

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
float F(float x);
void main()
{ int n, i;
float a, b, h, sum, ict;
float F(float x);
cout<<endl<<"TRAPEZOIDAL RULE:"<<endl;
cout<<"input initial value of x"<<endl;
cin>>a;
cout<<"input final value of x:"<<endl;
cin>>b;
cout<<"input the segment width:"<<endl;
cin>>h;
if(a!=b)
{ n= (b-a)/h;
sum = (F(a) + F(b))/2.0;
for(i=1; i<=n-1; i++)
{ sum = sum + F(a+i*h);
}
ict = sum * h;
cout<<endl;
cout<<"Integration between "<<a<<" and "<<b<<" when h= "<<h<<" is "<<ict<<endl;
cout<<endl;
}
else
{ cout<<"exiting"<<endl;
}
getch();
clrscr();
}
float F(float x)
{ float f;
f = 1.0-exp(-x/2.0);
return (f);
}


Trapezoidal rule for tabulated function

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define MAX 15
void main()
{ int n, n1, n2, i;
float a, b, h, sum, ict, x[MAX], y[MAX];
clrscr();
cout<<endl;
cout<<"input the no. of data points:"<<endl;
cin>>n;
cout<<"input the tablated values"<<endl;
cout<<"one set at each line:"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cin>>x[i]>>y[i];
cout<<"input initial value of x:"<<endl;
cin>>a;
cout<<"input final value of x:"<<endl;
cin>>b;
cout<<"input width of segments:"<<endl;
cin>>h;
n1=(int)(fabs(a-x[1])/h+1.5);
n2=(int)(fabs(b-x[1])/h+1.5);
sum=0.0;
for(i=n1; i<=n2-1; i++)
sum=sum+y[i]+y[i+1];
ict=sum*h/2.0;
cout<<"integral from "<<a<<" to "<<b<<" is "<<ict<<endl;
getch();
}


Simpson’s 1 by 3 using tabulated value

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<iomanip.h>
void main()
{ clrscr();
int i, n, n1, n2, m, l;
float x[15], y[15], a, b, h, sum, ics, i1, i2;
cout<<endl;
cout<<"input no. of data points:"<<endl;
cin>>n;
cout<<"input table values set by set"<<endl;
cout<<"one set on each line"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cin>>x[i]>>y[i];
cout<<"input initial value of x:"<<endl;
cin>>a;
cout<<"input final value of x:"<<endl;
cin>>b;
cout<<"input the segment width:"<<endl;
cin>>h;
n1 = (int)(fabs(a-x[1])/h+1.5);
n2 = (int)(fabs(b-x[1])/h+1.5);
m=n2-n1;
if(m%2==0)
{ i2=0.0;
l=n2-2;
}
else
{ i2=(y[n2-1]+y[n2])*h/2.0;
l=n2-3;
}
sum=0.0;
for(i=n1; i<=l; i=i+2)
sum=sum+y[i]+4*y[i+1]+y[i+2];
i1=sum*h/3.0;
ics=i1+i2;
cout<<"integral from "<<a<<" to "<<b<<" is "<<ics;
getch();
clrscr();
}

Simpson's 3 by 8 rule integrating a function

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define F(x) 1-exp(-(x)/2.0)
void main()
{ clrscr();
int n, m, i;
float a, b, h, sum, ics, x, f1, f2, f3, f4;
cout<<"Initial value of x"<<endl;
cin>>a;
cout<<"Final value of x"<<endl;
cin>>b;
cout<<"Number of segments n (divisible by 3)"<<endl;
cin>>n;
h=(b-a)/n;
m=n/3;
sum=0.0;
x=a;
f1=F(x);
for(i=0;i<=m-1;i++)
{ f2=F((x+h)); c
f3=F((x+2*h));
f4=F((x+3*h));
sum=sum+f1+3*f2+3*f3+f4;
f1=f4;
x=x+3*h;
}
ics=sum*3*h/8.0;
cout<<"Integral from "<<a<<" to "<<b<<endl;
cout<<"when h= "<<h<<" is "<<ics<<endl;
getch();
}

LAB REPORT FOR NUMERICAL METHODS 4

Gauss siedel iteration method

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<iomanip.h>
#include<math.h>
#define MAXIT 50
#define EPS 0.000001
void gaseid(int n, float a[10][10], float b[10], float x[10], int *count, int *status);
void main()
{ float a[10][10], b[10], x[10];
int i, j, n, count, status;
cout<<"** SOLUTION BY GUASS SEIDEL ITERATION METHOD **"<<endl;
cout<<"input the size of the system:"<<endl;
cin>>n;
cout<<"input coefficients, a(i.j)"<<endl;
cout<<"one row on each line"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
for(j=1; j<=n; j++)
cin>>a[i][j];
cout<<"input vector b:"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cin>>b[i];
gaseid(n, a, b, x, &count, &status);
if(status==2)
{ cout<<"no CONVERGENCE in "<<MAXIT<<" iterations."<<endl<<endl<<endl;
}
else
{ cout<<"SOLUTION VECTOR X"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cout<<setw(15.6)<<x[i]<<endl;
cout<<"iterations= "<<count;
}
getch();
}
void gaseid(int n, float a[10][10], float b[10], float x[10], int *count, int *status)
{ int i, j, key;
float sum, x0[10];
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
x0[i]=b[i]/a[i][i];
*count=1;
begin:
key=0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
{ sum=b[i];
for(j=1; j<=n; j++)
{ if(i==j)
continue;
sum=sum-a[i][j]*x0[j];
}
x[i]=sum/a[i][i];
if(key==0)
{ if(fabs((x[i]-x0[i])/x[i])>EPS)
key=1;
}
}
if(key==1)
{ if(*count==MAXIT)
{ *status=2;
return;
}
else
{ *status=1;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
x0[i]=x[i];
}
*count=*count+1;
goto begin;
}
return;
}



Euler’s Method
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<iomanip.h>
float func(float x, float y);
void main()
{ clrscr();
int i, n;
float x, y, xp, h, dy;
float func(float, float);
cout<<endl;
cout<<"SOLUTION BY THE EULER's METHOD"<<endl;
cout<<"input the initial values of x and y:"<<endl;
cin>>x>>y;
cout<<"input the x at which y is required:"<<endl;
cin>>xp;
cout<<"input the step size, h:"<<endl;
cin>>h;
n = (int) ((xp-x)/h + 0.5);
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
{ dy = h * func(x, y);
x = x + h;
y = y + dy;
cout<<setw(5)<<i<<setw(10.6)<<x<<setw(10.6)<<y<<endl;
}
cout<<"the value of y at x = "<<x<<" is "<<y<<endl;
getch();
clrscr();
}
float func(float x, float y)
{ float f;
f = x + y + x*y;
return (f);
}




Heun’s Method
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<iomanip.h>
float func(float x, float y);
void main()
{ clrscr();
int i, n;
float x, y, xp, h, m1, m2;
float func(float, float);
cout<<endl;
cout<<"SOLUTION BY THE HEUN's METHOD"<<endl;
cout<<endl;
cout<<"input initial values of x and y:"<<endl;
cin>>x>>y;
cout<<"input x at which y is required:"<<endl;
cin>>xp;
cout<<"input the step size, h:"<<endl;
cin>>h;
n = (int) ((xp - x)/h + 0.5);
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
{ m1 = func(x, y);
m2 = func(x+h, y+m1*h);
x = x + h;
y = y + 0.5 * h * (m1 + m2);
cout<<setw(7)<<i<<setw(15.9)<<x<<setw(15.9)<<y<<endl;
}
cout<<"the value of y at x = "<<x<<" is "<<y;
getch();
clrscr();
}
float func(float x, float y)
{ float f;
f = -y/(2*y + 1);
return(f);
}


Runge-Kutta Method
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<iomanip.h>
float func(float x, float y);
void main()
{ clrscr();
int i, n;
float x, y, xp, h, m1, m2, m3, m4;
float func(float, float);
cout<<endl;
cout<<"******************************************"<<endl;
cout<<"SOLUTION BY 4th ORDER RUNGE- KUTTA METHOD:"<<endl;
cout<<"******************************************"<<endl;
cout<<"input initial values of x and y:"<<endl;
cin>>x>>y;
cout<<"input x at which y is required:"<<endl;
cin>>xp;
cout<<"input step size, h:"<<endl;
cin>>h;
n = (int) ((xp - x)/h + 0.5);
cout<<endl;
cout<<"------------------------------------"<<endl;
cout<<setw(5)<<"STEP"<<setw(15.9)<<"X"<<setw(15.9)<<"Y"<<endl;
cout<<"------------------------------------"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
{ m1 = func(x, y);
m2 = func(x + 0.5*h, y + 0.5*m1*h);
m3 = func(x + 0.5*h, y + 0.5*m2*h);
m4 = func(x+h, y + m3*h);
x = x + h;
y = y + (m1 + 2.0*m2 + 2.0*m3 + m4) * h/6.0;
cout<<setw(5)<<i<<setw(15.9)<<x<<setw(15.9)<<y<<endl;
}
cout<<"the value of y at x = "<<x<<" is "<<y<<endl;
getch();
clrscr();
}
float func(float x, float y)
{ float f;
f = y + sqrt(y);
return(f);
}

LAB REPORT FOR NUMERICAL METHODS 2

Lagrange's Interpolation

#include<iostream.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define MAX 10
void main()
{ clrscr();
int n, i, j;
float x[MAX], f[MAX], fp, lf, sum, xp;
cout<<"input no. of data points:"<<endl;
cin>>n;
cout<<"input values of x and fx"<<endl;
cout<<"one set on each line"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cin>>x[i]>>f[i];
cout<<"input x where the interpolation is required:"<<endl;
cin>>xp;
sum=0.0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
{ lf=1.0;
for(j=1; j<=n; j++)
{ if(i!=j)
lf=lf*(xp-x[j])/(x[i]-x[j]);
}
sum= sum+lf*f[i];
}
fp= sum;
cout<<" LAGRANGIAN INTERPOLATION "<<endl;
cout<<"interpolated function value:"<<endl;
cout<<"at x= "<<xp<<" it is "<<fp<<endl;
getch();
}


Newton’s Interpolation

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{ clrscr();
int i, j, n;
float xp, fp, sum, pi, x[10], f[10], a[10], d[10][10];
cout<<"input numbers of data points:"<<endl;
cin>>n;
cout<<"Input values of x and fx"<<endl;
cout<<"one set on each line"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cin>>x[i]>>f[i];
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
d[i][1]=f[i];
for(j=2; j<=n; j++)
for(i=1; i<=n-j+1; i++)
d[i][j]=(d[i+1][j-1]-d[i][j-1])/(x[i+j-1]-x[i]);
for(j=1; j<=n; j++)
a[j]=d[1][j];
cout<<"enter xp where interpolation is required:"<<endl;
cin>>xp; csitnepal
Source: www.csitnepal.com Page 19
sum=a[1];
for(i=2; i<=n; i++)
{ pi =1.0;
for(j=1; j<=i-1; j++)
pi=pi*(xp-x[j]);
sum=sum+a[i]*pi;
}
fp=sum;
cout<<"NEWTON's INTERPOLATION"<<endl;
cout<<"***********************"<<endl;
cout<<endl;
cout<<"interpolation values"<<endl;
cout<<"at x="<<xp<<" it is"<<fp<<endl;
getch();
}

Fitting a straight line

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define MAX 10
#define EPS 0.000001
void main()
{ clrscr();
int i, n;
float x[10], y[10];
float sumx, sumy, sumxx, sumxy, xmean, ymean;
float denom;
float a,b;
cout<<"LINEAR REGRESSION METHOD"<<endl;
cout<<endl;
cout<<"input the no. of data points:"<<endl;
cin>>n;
cout<<"input x and y values"<<endl;
cout<<"one set on each line:"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cin>>x[i]>>y[i];
sumx=0.0; csitnepal
Source: www.csitnepal.com Page 22
sumy=0.0;
sumxx=0.0;
sumxy=0.0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
{ sumx=sumx+ x[i];
sumy=sumy+ y[i];
sumxx=sumxx+ x[i]*x[i];
sumxy= sumxy+ x[i]*y[i];
}
xmean=sumx/n;
ymean=sumy/n;
denom=n*sumxx-sumx*sumx;
if(fabs(denom)>EPS)
{ b=(n*sumxy-sumx*sumy)/denom;
a=ymean-b*xmean;
cout<<"linear regression line y=a+bx"<<endl;
cout<<"the coefficients are:"<<endl;
cout<<"a= "<<a<<endl;
cout<<"b= "<<b<<endl;
}
else
cout<<"NO SOLUTION"<<endl;
getch();
}

Differentiation using newton's interpolating polynomial

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{ int i, j, k, n;
float x[10], f[10], a[10], d[10][10], xp, dif, sum, p;
clrscr();
cout<<"NUMERICAL DIFFERENTIATION USING NEWTON's POLYNOMIAL"<<endl;
cout<<"input no. of data points:"<<endl;
cin>>n;
cout<<"input values of x and f(x)"<<endl;
cout<<"one set on each line"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
cin>>x[i]>>f[i];
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
d[i][1] = f[i];
for(j=2; j<=n; j++)
for(i=1; i<=n-j+1; i++)
d[i][j]=(d[i+1][j-1]-d[i][j-1])/(x[i+j-1]-x[i]);
for(j=1; j<=n; j++)
a[j]=d[1][j];
cout<<"input xp where derivative is required:"<<endl;
cin>>xp;
dif =a[2];
for(k=3; k<=n; k++)
{ sum= 0.0;
for(i=1; i<=k-1; i++)
{ p= 1.0;
for(j=1; j<=k-1; j++)
{ if (i==j)
continue;
p= p*(xp-x[j]);
}
sum= sum+p;
}
dif=dif+a[k]*sum;
}
cout<<"derivative at x= "<<xp<<" is "<<dif<<endl;
getch();
}

LAB REPORT FOR NUMERICAL METHODS 1

Bisection Method

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define EPS 0.000001
#define F(x) log(x)-cos(x)
void bim(float*a, float*b, float*root, float*s, int*count);
void main()
{ int count;
float a, b, root, s;
cout<<"SOLUTION BY BISECTION METHOD:"<<endl;
cout<<"input starting values:"<<endl;
cin>>a>>b;
bim(&a, &b, &root, &s, &count);
if (s==0)
{ cout<<"starting points donot bracket any root"<<endl;
cout<<"check whether they bracket EVEN roots."<<endl;
}
else
{ cout<<"root="<<root<<endl;
float fun = F(root);
cout<<"f(root)="<<fun<<endl;
cout<<"Iterations="<<count<<endl;
}
getch();
clrscr();
}
void bim(float*a, float*b, float*root, float*s, int*count)
{ float x1, x2, x0, f0, f1, f2;
x1=*a;
x2=*b;
f1=F(x1);
f2=F(x2);
if(f1*f2> 0)
{ *s=0;
return;
}
else
{ *count=0;
begin:
x0=(x1+x2)/2.0;
f0=F(x0);
if(f0==0)
{ *s=1;
*root=x0;
return;
}
if(f1*f0<0)
{ x2=x0;
}
else
{ x1=x0;
f1=f0;
}
if(fabs((x2-x1)/x2) < EPS)
{ *s=1;
*root=(x1+x2)/2.0;
return;
}
else
{ *count=*count+1;
goto begin;
}
}
}




Secant Method

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define EPS 0.000001
#define MAXIT 50
#define F(x) exp(x)-x-2
int sec(float*a, float*b, float*x1, float*x2, float*root, int*count, int*status);
void main()
{ float a, b, root, x1, x2, fr;
int count, status;
clrscr();
cout<<"SOLUTION BY SECANT METHOD"<<endl;
cout<<"Input two starting points:"<<endl;
cin>>a>>b;
sec(&a, &b, &x1, &x2, &root, &count, &status);
if(status==1)
{ cout<<"DIVISION BY ZERO"<<endl;
cout<<"last x1="<<x1<<endl<<"last x2="<<x2<<endl;
cout<<"number of iterations="<<count<<endl;
}
if(status==2) csitnepal
Source: www.csitnepal.com Page 6
{ cout<<"NO CONVERGENCE IN"<<MAXIT<<" ITERATIONS."<<endl;
}
else
{ cout<<"root="<<root<<endl;
fr=F(root);
cout<<"function Value at root="<<fr<<endl;
cout<<"no. of iterations="<<count<<endl;
}
getch();
}
int sec(float*a, float*b, float*x1, float*x2, float*root, int*count, int*status)
{ float x3, f1, f2, error;
*x1=*a;
*x2=*b;
f1=F(*a);
f2=F(*b);
*count=1;
begin:
if (fabs(f1-f2)<=1.E-10)
{ *status=1;
return 0;
}
x3=*x2-f2*(*x2-*x1)/(f2-f1);
error=fabs((x3-*x2)/x3);
if (error>EPS)
{ if (*count==MAXIT)
{ *status=2;
return 0;
}
else
{ *x1=*x2;
}
*x2=x3;
f1=f2;
f2=F(x3);
*count=*count+1;
goto begin;
}
else
{ *root=x3;
*status=3;
return 0;
}
}



Newton-Raphson Method

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#define EPS 0.000001
#define MAXIT 20
#define F(x) (x)*(x)*(x)+(x)*(x)-3*(x)-3
#define FD(x) 3*(x)*(x)+2*(x)-3
void main()
{ clrscr();
int count;
float x0, xn, fx, fdx, fxn;
cout<<"SOLUTION BY NEWTON RAPHSON'S METHOD"<<endl;
cout<<"input initial value of x:"<<endl;
cin>>x0;
count=1;
begin:
fx=F(x0);
fdx=FD(x0);
xn=x0-fx/fdx;
if (fabs((xn-x0)/xn) < EPS)
{ cout<<"root="<<xn<<endl;
fxn =F(xn);
cout<<"function value="<<fxn<<endl;
cout<<"no. of iterations="<<count<<endl;
}
else
{ x0=xn;
count=count+1;
if(count<MAXIT)
{ goto begin;
}
else
{ cout<<"SOLUTION DOESNOT CONVERGE."<<endl;
cout<<"iterations="<<MAXIT<<endl;
}
}
getch();
}
csitnepal



Fixed-point Iteration Method

#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<iomanip.h>
#include<math.h>
#define EPS 0.000001
#define G(x) 2.0-(x)*(x)
void main()
{ clrscr();
int MAXIT, i;
float x0, x, error;
cout<<"SOLUTON BY FIXED POINT METHOD"<<endl;
cout<<"input initial estimate of a root:"<<endl;
cin>>x0;
cout<<"Maximum iterations allowed:"<<endl;
cin>>MAXIT;
cout<<"iteration value of X error:"<<endl;
for(i=1; i<=MAXIT; i++)
{ x = G(x0);
error=fabs((x-x0)/x);
cout<<setw(10)<<i<<setw(10)<<x<<setw(10.8)<<error<<endl;
if(error < EPS)
goto end;
else
x0=x;
}
cout<<"process doesnot converge to a root"<<endl;
cout<<"exit from the iteratoion loop"<<endl;
end:
;
getch();
}

CASE STUDIES 3-INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT

`                                            A

CASE STUDY

On ENVIRONMENTAL THREAT AND OPPURTUNITIES

 OF B.sc csit students.

Kathmandu Bernhardt College

Submitted by:

KRISHNA RAJ KHAREL                                                                                                            submitted to: 

                                                                                                             Mr. Agni dhar parajuli                               

                                                                                                           Introduction

Tribhuvan University, Institute of Science and Technology has recently introduced a 4-year semester program, Bachelors of Science in Computer Science and Information Technology (B.Sc.CSIT). The course designed by the department for this program is highly acceptable and demanding to the nation and the IT industries. The department has been responsible to conduct entrance examination of Bachelor's of Computer Science and Information Technology (B.Sc.CSIT) since the year. B.Sc.CSIT is four year eight semester program offered by Tribhuvan University for the first time in Nepal.

Objectives of B.Sc.CSIT

• To offer intensive knowledge in the theory, design, programming and application of computers.
• To provide necessary knowledge in the field of functional knowledge of hardware system and necessary knowledge of computer software system.

Background

As a developing country, Nepal has availed of the opportunity to rapidly develop various sectors such as education, health, agriculture, tourism, trade, among others, using information technology.

IT technology means the technology which provides information about the concerned things. In this new generation IT plays a very important role in each and every country. Its full form is INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY. For the development of country IT technology is very important and it is the reason behind it. So, country like America, Japan, and China etc. are the example that is able to develop with the help of this technology. Mainly due to the IT technology, between many countries there is being competition for the development of their own. From this statement we can know that, it is very helpful mainly for the under developed country.

By the help of this technology country can introduced and can discovered many things. IT policy has much importance on various countries and its different sectors. Likewise, IT policy is important because IT plays a vital role to build up knowledge based society and boost up the economic condition of any country. For example we can take importance of IT policy in Nepal. Such as, IT policy is needed for Nepal to provide the general people access to IT to make knowledge based society to established knowledge based industry and to change the economic conditions of people.

By this IT, there are many merits which we can take the benefit from it such as, Promotion of e-commerce, Human resources development, Dissemination of IT and other related facilities from these all concept we directly understood that IT policy is very important and necessary for each and every country to be forward into new and advanced technology.

Government policy

The IT policy, Nepal was adopted in 2002 AD. (2057 B.S) to define the vision, background, objectives and strategies of computer education in Nepal. The main vision of IT policy of Nepal 2002 A.D. is to "Place Nepal on the global map of information Technology”. IT policy helps to make information technology accessible to the general public and increase employment through this means. Not only this, it helps to build knowledge based society too.

IT policy may be reviewed and modified every two years in conformity with technological development and expansion services as a result of rapid development in the information technology sector.

                                         Environmental Threats

Political

Main threat of the students of B.SC CSIT is the present political situation of Nepal. Due to the unstable government, this four year course might not get accomplish in time. Also due to political situation, there is no investments and new industries.

Environment

There are problems of unemployment, low income, low economy, low GDP and vicious circle of poverty which raises frustration.

Social

In this 21^st century, our society is still backward. Our religion and culture does not give us to think broadly and apply it. We have to think before our plans come to action. The type of education we want to gain solely depends on our family size, income and their education.

Technological

As the information technology field is a fast-growing sector in terms of career with society becoming more reliant on technology. Information technology is rapidly being applied in almost every sector. These sectors, however, continue to face multiple challenges such as the need to respond quickly to changes in technology and demand. Also there are many foreign degree holders in the market. And we lack in technology and resources required for development.

                                               Opportunities

Political

The political problems can be solved by convincing the political leaders because they are easy to convince and easy loving. Many opportunities can be extracted from government if we are able to provide networking and data recording services to governmental offices.

Environment

We can easily create new opportunities if we are able to create and bring technology to provide treatment to need and necessity of people.

Employment creation is done if we solve new needs of the generation.

Education

The information technology field is a fast-growing sector in terms of career with society becoming more reliant on technology, more people are needed to create the software and hardware for the same. And the demand for IT professionals is high in the market and so is the scope of IT professionals as the subject is practical and it is easy for students to get a job by the time they complete their studies.

The potential contribution of information technology to employment generation is both direct and indirect. Directly, the growth of the computer hardware and software industries are generating new job opportunities. Indirectly, the adoption of computer technology by other industries expands the range of services they provide and can stimulate more rapid growth of these sectors. The indirect impact of IT is far larger than the direct impact. In the USA, it is estimated that for every direct job created in the IT industry, a minimum of ten additional IT-related jobs have been created in other industries in which IT is applied. This does not include the non-IT jobs created by the growth of other sectors of the economy under the stimulus of information technology.

IT is both a labor-creating and labor-saving technology. As the introduction of automated machines replaced manual labor in factories and on fields, it was once believed that the spread of computer technology would result in massive job destruction. However, two decades of experience has demonstrated that the reverse is actually the case. Surely specific types of jobs are eliminated, but overall computerization creates far more jobs than it destroys. The spread of computerization acts as a catalyst for the growth of many types of businesses. This is not only true of businesses directly related to the computer industry, such as research and development, computer education, computer repair and maintenance. In fact, every sector of the economy is being energized by the adaptation of computer technology. The fastest growing sectors of the global service economy—education, financial services, insurance and health services—have all expanded by adapting IT technologies. IT has demonstrable benefits for employment and skill levels. Evidence indicates that IT contributes to growth in demand for labor, as well as an overall skill upgrading in the workplace.

Technology

In present, IT is fastest growing and developing sector so to cope up with the present world one has to be faster than the development that occurs and should possess all the qualification required by consulting foreign universities and have to be up to date.

Conclusion

B.Sc.CSIT is a complete package for a student to be a good IT professional as it contains every necessary course elements. So, this course is going to create a lots of direct and indirect employment opportunities for a B.Sc.CSIT student after their graduation. Along with life changing opportunities there are many threats for an IT technician. With the pace of development of IT sector one has to be fast enough to compete with the changing world around them.

                                                       Appendix

Ø  Principles of management

Ø  Introduction to management

Ø  internet 

SHORT QUES-ANS FOR OPERATING SYSTEM

[1]what ae the differences between trap and interrupt??
Answer: An interrupt is a hardware-generated change-of-flow within the system. An
interrupt handler is summoned to deal with the cause of the interrupt; control is then returned to the interrupted context and instruction.
A trap is a software-generated interrupt.
An interrupt can be used to signal the completion of an I/O to obviate the need for device
polling. A trap can be used to call operating system routines or to catch arithmetic errors.

[2] For what types of operations  is DMA useful?? in your own word please!
Answer: DMA is useful for transferring a large quantities of data  between memory and devices. It avoids the involvement of CPU in transfers and allows the transfers more quickly and at the mean time cpu can perform other tasks concurently.

[3]give the essential properties of each of the following operating systems in short:
a. Batch operating system
b. Interactive OS
c. Time sharing OS
d. Real time OS
e. Network OS
f. Distributed OS
Answer:
(A) Batch OS:
In this OS, Jobs with similar properties are needed to be batched together and run through the computer as a group by an operator or automatic job sequencer. Performance/speed  is increased by attempting to keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times through buffering, off-line
operation, spooling, and multi programming. Batch is good for executing large jobs
that need little interaction; it can be submitted and picked up later.

(B) Interactive OS:
This system is composed of many short transactions where the results of
the next transaction may be unpredictable. Response time needs to be short (seconds)
since the user submits and waits for the result.

(C)Time sharing OS:
This systems uses CPU scheduling and multi programming to provide
economical interactive use of a system. The CPU switches rapidly from one user to
another. Instead of having a job defined by spooled card images, each program reads

its next control card from the terminal, and output is normally printed immediately
to the screen.

(D)Real time:
Often used in a dedicated application, this system reads information from
sensors and must respond within a fixed amount of time to ensure correct performance.
e. Network.
f. Distributed.This system distributes computation among several physical processors.
The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own
local memory. They communicate with each other through various communication
lines, such as a high-speed bus or telephone line.


(E)Network OS:
it is the software that runs on a server and enables the server to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The network operating system is designed to allow share the files andprinter access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN),  The most popular network operating systems are Microsoft windows server 2003 , Microsoft windows server 2008, UNIX,LINUX etc...!

(F)Distributed OS:
This system distributes computation among several physical processors.
The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own
local memory. They communicate with each other through various communication
lines, such as a high-speed bus or telephone line.

CASE STUDIES 2-INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT

Kathmandu Bernhardt College

Bafal, Kathmandu

 

 Introduction to management

                              Case Study

Submitted to:                                                           Submitted by:

Agnidhar Parajuli                                                Krishna raj kharel

CEO                                                                    Roll:-07

Department of B.Sc.CSIT                        3^rd  Semester  

Environmental Analysis of Nepal Telecom

                           

Internal Environment

An organization's internal environment is composed of the elements within the organization, including current employees, management, and especially corporate culture, which defines employee behavior. Although some elements affect the organization as a whole, others affect only the manager. A manager's philosophical or leadership style directly impacts employees. Traditional managers give explicit instructions to employees, while progressive managers empower employees to make many of their own decisions. Changes in philosophy and/or leadership style are under the control of the manager. The following sections describe some of the elements that make up the internal environment.

The best thing about internal factors is that you can control many of them. Some factors, such as your business's reputation, image and creditworthiness, are a result of the way you run your business. Other factors, such as your organization's management structure and staffing and the physical decor of your business, are based on your business decisions, and you can change them as you see fit. Changing internal factors usually involves some indirect costs, such as lost productivity while new employees are trained, some direct costs, such as a penalty for terminating a lease before it expires, or some combination of the two. The internal environment of Nepal telecom are listed below.

Strategy:

After all being the government organization, strategy in NTC is to reach and retain its customer more broadly. NTC is trying to install better management software’s to handle its cross functional areas. With focus on its management NTC are about to have an Enterprise Resource Planning to improve its management of man, machine and material to have better satisfied customers.

NTC is also reducing cost for customer and staying competitive in the market. To counter the competitors strategy and techniques of attracting customer, NTC, without lagging behind are working on providing services in lower cost, customer friendly and new schemes and features.

Employees:

Without forgetting that the NTC is government organization, for the people working and about to work in the organization obviously have the presence of prestige and security. Being the largest profit earning government organization, here the employees believe that their job is secure and satisfactory.

With the good sense of security and prestige, NTC is also facing various problems in the organization. The organization is encountering the hitch of overstaffing and human resource management. The employees in the organization are not well updated with the technology and trends in telecommunication. Company cannot train all of them and also it is hard to fire them. Cost of training to employees is very much high and it is difficult to recruit the employees in right place. Though new technologies are emerging in NTC, employees and the management are quite traditional and persist resistant to change. It is complicated to build the confidence and change the attitude of employees in the organization for new technologies and trends.

Shareholders:

Mostly, the company is owned by government. The very large portion of share is of government of 91.49%. There is very less amount of shares of general public. With the good performance of the company, earning per share of NTC is growing comparing to last year. Therefore the NTC is providing healthy dividend amounts to its shareholders.

Shareholders Classification	Outstanding Number of Shares	Percentage
Government of Nepal	137,239,910	91.49%
Citizen Investment trust	50,000	0.03%
Public	5,737,905	3.83%
Employees	6,972,185	4.65%
Total	150,000,000	100%

Unions:

We know that NTC is the government organization, then without any doubt there is the presence of influences of unions. The unions present in NTC are Telecommunication Employees Association of Nepal (TEAN), Nepal Telecom Company Workers Union (NTCWU). There is high involvement of unions in decision making process in the organization.

Corporate Culture:

Holding the long history of presence in the industry, culture and management of the organization is quite traditional. The management culture has the flavor of old taste of operation and service. Employees are also there for the long time and hold the traditional nature of dealing to work and customers. Even we can feel the environment whenever we enter the business house of the organization. Employees have the mentality of escaping from the task and delaying the services. We can also find the negligence of executive pertaining to long process and time span in decision making and implementation.

The External Environment

All outside factors that may affect an organization make up the external environment . The external environment is divided into two parts:

·         Directly interactive: This environment has an immediate and firsthand impact upon the organization. A new competitor entering the market is an example.

·         Indirectly interactive: This environment has a secondary and more distant effect upon the organization. New legislation taking effect may have a great impact. For example, complying with the Americans with Disabilities Act requires employers to update their facilities to accommodate those with disabilities.

Directly interactive forces

Directly interactive forces include owners, customers, suppliers, competitors, employees, and employee unions. Management has a responsibility to each of these groups. Here are some examples:

·         Owners 

·         Customers 

·          Suppliers 

·         Competitors

·         Employees and employee unions .

Indirectly interactive forces

The second type of external environment is the indirectly interactive forces. These forces include sociocultural, political and legal, technological, economic.

a.      Political Analysis

Nepal is in the state of the transition phase politically. So the political instability seems to be normal during this phase. All the sectors in the economy are more or less affected by it, and the telecommunication sector also can’t remain unaffected. The effect is better seen in NTC because it is a state owned company. The affects can be seen in the sector of delaying in new projects and investment, and irregularities in the case of making tender.

The other crucial aspect in political instability is the change in government. With the change in government, the first thing that falls under the minister priority is to transfer and allocate the staffs according to their will and need. This process consequently affects the plans and procedure of the organization.

b.      Economic Analysis

Although the economy in the world is shrinking, but the disposable income of the people in Nepal is increasing. The inflow of remittance in the country is directly helping in this prospect. The number of people using the cellular mobile phone is increasing day by day. Furthermore, the inflow of Chinese mobile phones at the low cost is also helping people to enjoy the services of mobile technology. Hence in Nepal, the economic environment seems to be favorable.

c.       Social Analysis

Nepal Telecom’s widespread reach will assist in the socio-economic development of the urban as well as rural areas, as telecommunications is one of the most important infrastructures required for development. Accordingly in the era of globalization, it is felt that milestones and achievements of the past are not adequate enough to catch up with the global trend in the development of telecommunication sector and the growth of telecommunication services in the country will be guided by Technology, Declining equipment prices, market growth due to increase in standard of life and finally by healthy competition.

d.      Technological Analysis

Technology in the communication sector is a crucial aspect. New technologies are been developing day by day. Nepal Telecom is also adopting the new technologies to be updated with the trend. The new services like ADSL and 3G services are already been used by Nepal Telecom. Recently NTC completed its optical fiber connection with its sub branches across Nepal.

e.       Legal Analysis

Nepal Telecommunication Authority is the governing body for the telecommunication sector. It enacts laws to bind this sector. With the provision of know your customers, it is bound to distribute the sim cards to its customers only after the full and detailed information. It is also restricted to distribute the unlimited number of sim cards since the frequency is limited to them.

Strength

Those factors or characteristics of the organization that could serve as the basis for achieving your mission and vision. Examples:  good facilities, staff, volunteer participation, programs, recognition, financial resources, etc. The strength of Nepal telecom are listed below

·         Economies of scale- It is easier to create economies of scale thereby increasing return on investment. The Nepali telecom market especially Kathmandu is a high-density area, which means more population per tower. This means lower capital expenditure cost.

·         Active management team- Active management is a big strength to the telecom industry because it is due to the effective management team; the telecom industry is able to make consistent profit over a long period of time.

·         Manipulate price- NTC has loyal customer base. Eventhough the comparative prices are higher for its services, customer are ready pay for it.

·         Strong brand name-Due to the strong brand name of the company, people have trust and are loyal towards the company. It will not have any problem in introducing its products and technologies in the new market.

·         Sustainable business modeling-It is able to sustain itself with the profit it has made over a long period of time even though if there is some kind of hindrance.

Weaknesses

Factors that realistically may limit the extent or speed with which your mission and vision may be accomplished. Examples:  declining funding, aging and limited facilities, lack of expertise, etc. the weakness of Nepal telecom are listed below

·         Low signal strength-Large number of call drops and quality of connection is not good.

·         Late adoptation of new technology- Nepal is probably one of the last countries to adopt new technology. Example 3g technology, some estimate suggests that nearly 133 countries across the world already had 3G technology and mobile services in one form or the other.

·         High overhead cost: NTC is compiled with lagre number of staffs. NTC is facing hard time to recruit and assign the employees in right place and in right time.

·         Low quality customer care services-If there is any problem in the product that you buy, the customer care service in not that efficient to solve the problem immediately. It will probably take days to cater the customer. Companies don’t give priority in the maintenance.